[137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. [191], The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. 4 This was Hodge's term for the ancestral proto-language of Proto-Afroasiatic and Proto-Indo-European based on Proto-Lislakh *lis- 'language' + *laxwos 'people'. C. Kanuri [175] In Egyptian, it takes the forms -j, whereas in Semitic it takes the form -i(y);[138] it thus has the same form in both language families. [117] In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. p-Kuliak (Ik) Other Language Families and Fields of Study. p-Igboid of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. * "Revising the Consonant Inventory of Proto-Eastern Cushitic," Studies in African Linguistics 22, 3 (1991): 211-275. Origins, Migrations, and Language Contacts. There is also some evidence from. Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. Online Library The Oxford Introduction To Proto Indo European And The BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. >>14700332 p-Akokoid It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. PDF Introduction To Lithuanian Verbs Nouns And Indo European Etymology London: Routledge, 1990. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. The Atlas of Languages. Mao [121] In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). p-Talodi [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. p-Yoruboid [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. *y: adjective suffix: 3. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. Afroasiatic | Ethnic group of Africa - Native Breed.org The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. V. V. ven. In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. p-Lakka [151] Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gbor Takcs, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. p-Kongo This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. p-Grassfields Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. ), (Berber, Eg. Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System" In The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, 105-108. [187] Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1-10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6-9 from the numbers 1-5 in some way. Meredith Holt [123], Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic was a tonal language, with tonality subsequently lost in some branches: Christopher Ehret has postulated a tonal system of at least two tonal phonemes, falling tone, rising tone, and possibly a third tone, level tone. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. Beboid Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. [31] They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). p-Agaw Berta [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. PDF Vowels And Consonants [167] These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Under East Semitic rose Akkadian and Babylonian. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. Atlantic (Guinea) [168] Prefixes of - (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Philippine History PinoyExchange Diamond and Bellwood adopt Militarev's ( 2) solitary counterclaim of proto-Afroasiatic cultivation. p-Potou-Akanic as EL). [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. Semitic and Berber are quite closely related, and both are more distantly connected to Cushitic. [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one". [174] It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins West Semitic brought forth such languages as Canaanite, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (EL, p.906). [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. The Afro-Asiatic Language Family - Linguistics innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. Afroasiatic languages - Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. p-South Bauchi [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. Laal [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. PDF C. Ehret, S. O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman. "The Origins of Afroasiatic Shabo One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. [135] In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). innovation: integration of *t dur. Ekoid infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. ; possible n. derivation < v. in #1004). velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). p-Katloid p-Gurunsi [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. The HmongMien languages also known as MiaoYao and rarely as Yangtzean1 are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast [68] In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified as Cushitic by Greenberg were in fact an independent "Omotic" language family, a proposal that has been widely accepted but remains controversial. Pr. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. suff. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. !Kung, Bangime [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. Linguistic guesstimates or phylogenetic speculation date the proto-language (and thus the homeland) within a wide range, from 15,000 to 6,000 years ago. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. p-Edoid innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. [121] Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,[154] where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. New York: Elsevier, 1977. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [7] Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. I.2. Afroasiatic - Indo-European innovation: added meaning 'firm,' hence, figuratively, 'firmly established, strong'), to intertwine, to bind by twining together, to be above, be at the top, form the tip or peak, (Sem., Ch. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. ), (Sem., Eg. [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Report Save. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). bantu semitic language p-Tuu ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. p-Cangin suff. into stem), to take (bit of food or drink) into the mouth, (* is required by derived noun, root #641 following), (Eg., Sem. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . innovation: specialization of meaning to plant growth), (Berber, e.g., Shilh agafay 'cloud,' implies a 2nd root shape *-gaap-), to impel, make move (by pushing, pulling), (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. Africa is divided by geographical features, including the Sahara desert and the Ethiopian mountains. [176], Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". suff. [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. There is an obvious trend (probably driven by Semitic and Egyptian researchers) to place the Afroasiatic Homeland near one of the many proposed Semitic homelands, i.e. South Bauchi Gule I.2.1. [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). Afroasiatic languages - Wikipedia [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. Once the Luwian hieroglyphics for God "" and Gate "" were discovered at Gbekli Tepe, this author was able to directly link the site's carved pillars and pillar enclosures to the Abrahamic/Mosaic "Word of God", . (abbrev. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. Nara Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. Tula-Waja [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. The prefixes ti and it mean she. innovation: narrowing of meaning to beating time to music), (Eg., Sem. p-Aroid ), to fit on top of, go above or in front of, (Eg., Sem. p-Ijaw [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. (PDF) The Origins of Afroasiatic - ResearchGate Nilo-Saharan Mimi-D [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). ), to extend, stretch out (intr. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . Additionally, Joseph Greenberg argued that "Hamitic" has racial connotations, and that the name "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. Nostratic languages Wiki - Everipedia.org [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. [30] For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). innovation: added sense, 'to listen to'), (Ch., Sem., Berber innovation: specialized meaning 'tooth'; but note presence of that meaning isolated in single Omotic language), (innovation: Sem., Ch. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. Oko Item Weight : 11.2 ounces Dimensions : 5.75 x 0.75 x 9 inches Best Sellers Rank: #1,696,866 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books) #2,811 in Comparative Religion (Books) Customer Reviews: 3 ratings Videos Help others learn more about this product by uploading a video!

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